Differences between Action Research and Formal Research

Introduction

Action research is a form of applied research whose primary purpose is the improvement of an educational professional's own practice. Action research is equivalent to practitioner research, teacher research, insider research and self-study research when it is undertaken by by teacher educators on their own practice.

Action research may use any of the methods used in formal educational research. Action researchers can collaborate with colleagues, clients, or professional researchers usually university professors. It may also have other purposes besides improving one's personal practice.

Action research differs from formal research in many aspects. Formal rsearch is a form of generalizable knowledge published in acadmic journals. However some action research having some characteristics of formal research can be published in academic journals. Action research is published in online action research journal and websites of various action research networks. Other practitioners benefit from the knowledge generated by these reports.

Common differences between Action Research and Formal Research

Training needed by researcher

In Formal research extensive training is needed. In Action Rresearch, extensive training is not required.

Goals of Research

In formal Research knowledge produced is generalizable. In Action research Knowledge is to apply to local situation.

Method of identifying the problem to be studied

In Formal research: Review of previous research. In Action Research: Problems urrently faced.

Procedure for literature review

In Formal research: extensive, using primary sources. In Action research: more cursory, use of secondary sources.

Sampling approach

In Formal research: Random or representative sampling. In formal research: students or clients with whom they worked;

Research design

In Formal research: rigorous control, long time frame. In Action research: looser procedures, change during study, quick time frame, control through triangulation.

Measurement procedures

In Formal research: evaluate and pretest measures. In Action research: convenient measures or standardized tests.

Data analysis

In formal research: Statistical tests, qualitative techniques. In Action research: focus on practical, not statistical significance, present raw data, graphs

Application of results

In Formal research emphasis is on theoretical significance, increased knowledge about teaching and learning in general. In Action Research: emphasis on practical significance,improved teaching and learning in a particular classroom.
 

 Reporting outcome

In formal research: Published report, journal article, professional conference, In Action research: Informal sharing with colleagues, brief report, ERIC document, conferences.   

                                                

                           

Statistics in Descriptive Research

The description of a sample implies that a researcher defines variables, measures them, and for each measure calculates one or more of the following descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency and measures of variability. Measures of central tendency are: mean, median and mode. Measures of variability are: standard deviation, variance and range. The researcher can also calculate the derived scores which help interpreting the sample's scores on the variables that were measured. Derived scores aid the interpretation by providing a quantitative measure of each individual's performance relative to a comparison group. Age equivalents, grade equivalents, percentiles, and standard scores are examples of derived scores commonly used in descriptive research.

Some descriptive research provide statistical information about aspects of education that interest  policy makers and educators. This type of research is the specialty of the National Center for Education Statistics. Many of this center's research results are published in an annual volume called the Digest of Educational Statistics. This center also administers the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which is a collection of descriptive information about the performance of youth in the different subjects taught in public schools. A noticeable NAEP publication is the Reading Report Card, which reports descriptive statistics about student's performance in reading at different levels. At a higher level the International Association for the the Evaluation of  Educational Achievement (IEA) does descriptive studies of the academic achievement of students in many nations including the United States.

The two main types of descriptive research differ by the time the variables are measured. In the first type the variables or the characteristics of a sample are measured at one point in time. In the second type which is called longitudinal a sample is followed over time.    

The Purpose of Descriptive Research

The most basic form of Research involves the description of the forms, actions, changes over time of the natural and non-natural phenomena. It also involves the description of similarities with other phenomena. The description of phenomena has led scientists to many scientific discoveries. For example the description of some parts of the universe by astronomers have led to the discovery of the structure of the solar system and the prediction of lunar eclipses.

Descriptive research in education involves the description of educational phenomena. Description viewed in research as understanding what people or things mean is an important goal in qualitative research. For this reason it is important  to know the qualitative and quantitative approaches in the planification of descriptive studies. This allows to make the best choices in undertaking descriptive research.

Descriptive studies primarily determine "what is". As examples some of the possible questions of being studied in descriptive studies are: What kinds of activities occur in a ninth grade science class and how frequently do they occur? What were the reactions of school administrators to innovations in teaching Biology?

Most educational studies tend to discover cause and effect relationships and testing new educational methods and programs. Researchers have to describe an educational phenomenon first before attempting to explain or change it. Some educational reforms took place with the findings of some descriptive studies. Some educational books like Life in Classrooms by Philip Jackson, The Good High School by Sara Lawrence Lightfoot and A Place Called School are based on descriptive studies.

Researchers administer questionnaires and interviews to a sample of research participants in order to collect data for their descriptive studies. This type of research called survey research leads to knowledge of opinions, attitudes and practices. Such knowledge has helped in shaping educational policies and initiatives to change existing conditions.

In summary the description of natural and non-natural phenomena involves the description of their forms, actions, changes over time and similarities with other phenomena. This type of research has led to important discoveries in astronomy. The description of different parts of the universe has led to important discoveries about this universe. Descriptive research viewed as understanding what people or things mean is used both in quantitative and qualitative research. Descriptive research means also understanding what exists by asking questions. Descriptive educational studies tend to discover cause and effect relationships and testing new educational methods and programs. Many educational reforms took place with the results of descriptive research studies. Some books written by educators are the results of descriptive studies. Researchers use questionnaires and interviews to collect data about their descriptive studies. The findings of such studies lead to the establishment of policies and initiatives to change conditions. It can be noted that conditions can be worsened if it is poorly designed and its philosophy doesn't lead to results that truly benefits the majority of people. Such type of research can lead to authoritarian and non democratic policies that don't lead to meaningful changes for the majority but reinforce the privileges of a minority.         

Classification of research designs

Quantitative researchers have developed different types of research designs to facilitate their studies. Their research procedures include organization of the variables, selection of samples, schedule for data collection and techniques for statistical analysis.

Similarities between research designs have allowed to to classify them in various types. The criteria of the use of experiment have allowed to classify the designs in experimental and non-experimental research.  In non- experimental design the researcher studies existing phenomena without intervention in the structure of these phenomena. On the other hand the experimental design require some kind of experiment with the intervention of the researcher. The various types of non-experimental design are: descriptive, causal-comparative and correlational.

Research designs are also classified according to their purpose. Educational studies are undertaken according to four different purposes: description, prediction, improvement and explanation.

If the purpose is description, two types of research design can be used: descriptive and longitudinal. Descriptive research is used when phenomena are studied at one point in time. Longitudinal design is used to study changes that occur in phenomena over time.

If the purpose is prediction, correlational design is used.

When the purpose is explanation a causal-comparative design is used. The design involves finding cause and effect relationships between variables. Correlation and experimental design are also used. I would also add that descriptive design can be used because when you describe something you also explain it.

Finally if the purpose of the design is improvement, experimental design is used.  The reason why experimental design is used is because designing an intervention and following its effects is a kind of experiment.

Statistical techniques

Definition of Statistics

Statistics are mathematical techniques  for analyzing numerical data to accomplish various purposes. For example the calculation of a mean leads to a single score that represents many scores such as the scores of all students who took a particular test.

Types of Statistics

There are four types of Statistics: descriptive, correlational, inferential and psychometric.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Satistics are mathematical techniques for organizing and summarizing a set of numerical data. In Educational Research they are used to describe educational phenomena. They describe the score on a single variable

Correlational Statistics

Correlational Statistics are used to describe relationships between two or more variables.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics are mathematical techniques for using probabilities and information about a sample to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample originated.

Psychometric Statistics

They are Statistics used to describe the psychometric properties of tests and he appropriateness of information and uses of outcomes from tests and other measures.


Example of Statistical Analysis in a Research Study


Statistics are used in virtually all quantitative studies but in many qualitative studies also. An example is the case study of reading groups in a first grade classroom conducted by James Collins. The study was part of a large ethnographic study of language differences between working class black children and middle class white children in their home and school environments.

Types of Scores 

Measurements in educational research are expressed usually in three forms: continuous scores, ranks, or categories. It is important to understand the differences between the score types because the forms in which the scores are expressed reflect the choice of statistical analysis procedure. If the research data consist of continuous scores on two groups group differences are analyzed by calculating a mean score and a statistic known as t. However if the scores are in thew forms of categories the group differences are analyzed by a Chi-square test, which compares categories frequencies between two or more groups. There are 3 types of scores: continuous, age and grade equivalents and rank.

Epistemological issues in Educational Research

Educational Research is not an unified enterprise. Two main approaches that are studied in Educational Research are known as Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research. Quantitative Research studies samples and populations and uses statistical analysis to represent data and model the relationships between them. Qualitative Research makes little use of statistical analysis and relies on verbal data and subjective analysis. The reason for these different approaches originates from the different epistemological issues underlying scientific inquiry.

Let's see what has preoccupied epistemologists for a certain period of time. First let's define the word epistemology. Epistemology is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and how it is acquired and validated. The epistemologists interested in the natural and social sciences, also called philosophers of Science, have looked for answers to some very pertinent questions. These questions are so formulated: are the objects (neutrons, self-concept) studied by researchers real? How does research knowledge different from other forms of knowledge and does it have any authority? What is theory and how can it be validated? What does it signify to find laws enabling to predict individual and group behavior? Is inquiry in the social sciences different from the inquiry in the natural sciences?

Following their long investigations about these questions during many centuries they have established different schools of thought (empiricism, phenomenology, positivism, etc). Researchers have been influenced by these streams of thinking and have come up with their own epistemological views of how research should be conducted in different branches of social sciences (Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, etc). Educational researchers have their own epistemological approaches at this present time. Other Educational researchers have quite a different stand about these current issues and how they conduct their own research.

The model of Social Science Inquiry include the following elements:
A is the person being studied. This person's environment includes: a physical reality B and a social  reality C.
D is the researcher
E is the research report
F is the reader of the report.
This model can be illustrated by a diagram that can't be drawn here. In this diagram A, B, C, D, E and F are surrounded by ellipses. The diagram can be drawn in the following order:
On the right A is surrounded by an ellipse.
Above A on the left is the person's environment surrounded by an ellipse. Below this ellipse are B and C surrounded by an ellipse each: one on the left and the other on the right. Arrows relate the person's environment ellipse to ellipses B and C. This mini-diagram by itself shows that the person's environment is related to a physical reality B and a social reality C. In the first part of the diagram A, B and C are aligned.
Below between A and B is D
Below C  is E.
Below E is F so that D, E and F are aligned vertically. It is not important if someone cannot draw the diagram. The model is explained below and can be understood without the presence of a diagram.

One of the elements of the model in the diagram is the individual person designated by (A). Let's called her a teacher. The teacher interacts in an environment that is both physical (B) and social (C). The teacher uses a textbook which is a physical object made of ink and paper whose reality is defined by some chemical properties, The teacher uses this textbook to perform a social function which is to instruct students. Teacher's and students' roles are defined by society and constitute a social reality.

Educational researchers (D) and other social scientists such as Psychologists, Sociologists, Anthropologists, etc conduct investigations about  persons or group of persons, their environment or the interaction between people or group of people and their environment. For example Piaget study how children interact with their environment during different stages of their development. Some educational researchers study different social interactions in the classroom. Social scientists do not generally study physical reality although some might do. For example investigation has been conducted to study the relationship between the brain functions and the cognitive processes (attention, problem solving) while individuals work on intellectual tasks.

Following a study a research writes a report (E) about his findings, which is read by other individuals (F). These individuals can be other researchers, educational practitioners, policymakers, funders of the research. Different reports can be written for different audiences.

Application of Resarch to Educational Practice

Based on some observations Educational Practice cannot rely blindly on research. Both fields have their own goals. According to D.C Philips Research uses statement about what is and Educational Practice uses statements involving "ought to be". For example Research uses statement such as : "X is Y"; "the probability for X to have the feature Y is p". Practice uses statements such as: "Person A ought to do Z to person B". It is logical  that from statements involving the use of "is" conclusions about "ought" or "should" cannot be deduced.

Questions involving "is" can be well answered by educational research while those involving "ought to" imply the use of dialogue to solve them. Researchers cannot expect their findings about "is" to be transformed in immediate change without being criticized. Likewise practitioners cannot look to research for prescriptive advice. However practitioners can use the researcher's findings in their dialogue about solutions to practical problems.

Limitations of Research knowledge

Research findings has several limitations. One of them is that results generated from a sample cannot be generalized to all the elements of a population. Some research studies do a few cases and generalization has to be done by considering each of the other additional cases. Therefore practitioners can look to research for advice but they should ask themselves: "Are these findings applicable to my situation"?

Another limitation of research knowledge is that its discoveries are filtered with a certain worldview. Studies about intervention in the classroom may have have high performance test achievement as learning outcomes while neglecting other outcomes such as self-reliance, humanitarian attitudes,etc. Some research studies are done with a certain view of teachers as proved by Lampert's observations. She stated that teachers are considered like "technical production manager" whose role is is to monitor the efficiency of learning. The teacher's role is to apply researcher's knowledge and policies without the consideration of other instructional factors.

Lampert advances a different view of teachers as dilemma managers. This view originated from her own research studies revealing that classroom teaching involves many problematic situations with competing interests that the teacher has to deal with.

Lampert's view of teaching agrees with other professionals who studied professional practice. Donald Schon is one of the most influential of these individuals. His theory stated that a "flawed model of technical rationality" dominates thinking about the relationship between research and practice. He describes the model of Technical Rationality as professional activity consisting in "instrumental problem solving made rigorous by the application of scientific theory and technique".

Shon explained the reason why this model is flawed. He stated that research in the positivist tradition deals with a "stable, consistent reality about which generalizations can be made and applied, whereas professional practice involves "complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflict."

Schon and many others advise that practitioners have to engage in reflection-in-action, not in the application of research knowledge in order to deal with the "messiness" of their work. One of the chief elements of reflection-in-action "is a kind of experimentation based on the practitioner's analysis of each unique situation they confront."

Schon's model of reflection-in-action doesn't prevent the application of research knowledge for professional action. The implication of the model is that research knowledge should not be used exclusively as a basis for professional action. In fact researchers found that "the classroom is marked more by sameness of practice than by diversity and uniqueness". In fact research knowledge might allow practitioners to be in a better position to accommodate the differences among the constituencies."

 The Importance of Basic Research

Some practitioners believe that educational research is too theoretical and too focused on basic processes of learning. They think that priority should be given to applied research based on problems confronted by practitioners. This argument raises questions about the relative value of basic and applied research in education.

While the contribution of applied research to the improvement of educational practice seems obvious an important study in the field of education gives reason for reconsideration of this viewpoint. The remarkable findings of this study are related to the fact that a high percentage of basic research studies was essential to the development of current treatment of cardiovascular and pulmonary disease.

     

Four types of knowledge that research contributes to education

Description

Many research studies are based on the description of natural or social phenomena by studying their form, structure, activity, change over time, relationship to other phenomena, etc. These descriptions have resulted in important discoveries. For example the observation of different parts of the universe by astronomers have resulted in the discoveries of galaxies and the structure of the universe. These discoveries have subsequently lead to the origin of the universe and its course.

The descriptive function of research relies strongly on instruments for observation and measurement. Researchers spend a great amount of time to develop instruments. Once developed these instruments are used to describe phenomena studied by researchers.

Descriptive studies increase the knowledge of education in schools. Some important books about education are based on descriptive studies for example Life in Classroom by Philip Jackson, The Good High School by Sara Lawrence Lightfoot, etc.

Some descriptive educational studies produce statistical information of interest to policy makers and educators. The National Center for Education Statistics publish descriptive studies in an annual journal called the Digest of Educational Statistics. These published studies about the delivery of education are information available to anyone concerned about the quality of education in schools.

Prediction

Another type of research knowledge is the ability to predict a phenomenon that will happen at time Y from information available at a time X. For example lunar eclipses can be predicted with precision from knowledge about the relative motion of the Moon, Earth and Sun. The next stage of an embryo's development can also be predicted from knowledge about the current stage of the embryo. A student's performance in school can be predicted with a fair amount of precision by an aptitude test administered previously a year or two,

Educational researchers have undertaken a lot of prediction studies for the acquisition of knowledge about factors predicting student's success in school and in the world of work. One of the reasons of doing such research is to provide guidance for the selection of students who will be successful in some particular academic disciplines. For example Universities use the Scholastic Aptitude Test along with other data for the selection of students who are likely to be successful in their academic programs. More knowledge is needed about the level of accuracy of these tests for different groups of students to determine if new instruments are needed to improve the predictability of success in some particular fields.

Another purpose of prediction research is the identification of students who can be unsuccessful in the course of their schooling so that academic prevention programs can be put in place. For example this type of research can be used to solve the problem of school dropouts. The collection of information about students from sixth grade until graduation can provide information about the best predictions. The predictive knowledge can be used to determine sixth graders who are likely to become high school dropouts. This knowledge can be used to develop programs that can help them to be successful in schools.

Educational research has produced a large body of predictive knowledge about factors predicting issues of social importance (examples: academic success, career success, criminal conduct). Several procedures have been developed for doing predictive research.

Improvement

The third type of research knowledge deals with the effectiveness of interventions. Some examples of interventions are: drug therapies in medicine, construction materials in engineering, marketing strategies in business, and instructional programs in education. Many educational research studies are realized to identify interventions or factors able to be transformed in interventions in order to improve student's academic performance. Walberg and his colleagues have summarized the results of nearly 3,000 studies on interventions or potential interventions undertaken for the purpose of improving student's performance on various measures of academic achievement. Such intervention variables are: reinforcement, reading training, cooperative learning, personalized instruction, tutoring, individualized science, individualized mathematics, etc.

Walberg's synthesis of research have demonstrated that educational researchers have found many effective interventions that can improve student's learning. However studies need to be done to improve the effectiveness of these interventions. Research has to be undertaken also to turn potential interventions into actual interventions. For example class morale is not an intervention per se. However when it is used it becomes an intervention to improve student's performance. Various research approaches are used to generate "improvement" research knowledge such as evaluation research, experimental research and action research.

Another approach for the improvement of education through inquiry has become popular in recent years. Cultural studies, a branch of critical theory, is a type of social science inquiry that investigates the power relationships in different members of a society in order to help them to deliberate from different forms of oppression. Researchers engaged in this type of inquiry should state their purpose not as improvement of education but as emancipation of some oppressed members of the educational system. A branch of historical research called revisionist theory also examines oppressive power relationships. These power relationships reflect some strong cultural and social forces that affect student learning.

Explanation

The fourth type of research knowledge, explanation, is the most important one because it includes the three. Being able to explain a phenomenon researchers can describe it, predict its consequences and intervene to decrease or eliminate harmful consequences.

Researchers generally called theories the explanations about the phenomena being investigated. A theory is an explanation of a certain set of observed phenomena in terms of a system of constructs and laws that relate these constructs to each other. In other words a theory is a system that consists of a set of constructs and their relation to each other. For example, Piaget's explanation about intellectual development is a theory. Let's demonstrate it.

What phenomena does Piaget have to observe and explain? He has to observe and explain the behavior of infants and children with respect to their environment. For example Piaget observed how children of different ages responded to a particular task. The children's responses constitute a set of phenomena that Piaget has to explain by establishing a theory.

What are Piaget's theoretical constructs? First let's define a theoretical construct and its two types. A theoretical construct is a concept that is inferred from observed phenomena. It can be defined constitutively or operationally. A constitutively defined construct is one that is defined by referring to other constructs. For example Piaget's construct of conservation can be defined as the ability of an object to have some of its properties remain unchanged while other properties of the object (e.g., substance, length, volume) undergo a transformation. The notion of conservation is being defined here by referring to other constructs (e.g.,  property, transformation, or length).

An operationally defined construct is one that is defined by specifying the activities used to measure or manipulate it. For example the concept of conservation (constitutively defined above) can be defined operationally by referring to a particular task, for example, putting a constant amount of liquid into different-sized containers and then asking a child whether the amount of liquid remains the same.

Some researchers used the term variable in their investigation rather than construct. A variable is a quantitative expression of a construct. Variables are usually measured in terms of scores on an instrument of measure such as an achievement test or an attitude scale or in terms of categories of construct (e.g., public vs. private schools).

Let's continue about proving that the explanation of Piaget about child's development is a theory. Other constructs in Piaget's theory are the stages of intellectual development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations.

What is the law that relates the stages of intellectual development? First, let's define a law. A law is a generalization about the causal, sequential, or other relationship between two or more constructs. "Piaget proposes the law that these constructs are related to each other as an invariant sequence: the sensorimotor stage is always followed by the preoperational stage; the preoperational stage is always followed by the concrete operations stage and the concrete operations stage is always followed by the formal operations stage".

Uses of theory

Theories serve several purposes. First they identify commonalities in isolated phenomena. For example Piaget identify the effects of sensorimotor intelligence on many infant behaviors. Theoretical constructs identify the universals of experience in order to make sense of that experience. Second the laws of a theory allow us to make prediction and to control phenomena. For example certain astronomic laws enable astronomers to make predictions about eclipses and other phenomena in the universe. The laws of a theory of learning allow special educators to make interventions that lead to positive changes in student behavior.

Approaches to theory development

The two main approaches of theory development are: grounded theory and scientific method. In grounded theory the constructs and laws are grounded in the set of data collected. In other words the constructs and laws dreved from the immediate set of data collected. The usefulness of constructs and laws are tested in a subsequent research.

The other approach is called scientific method. It consists by formulating a theory and then testing it by collecting data. The process unfolds in three steps.

1. One formulates a hypothesis
2. One makes deductions of observable consequences of the hypothesis.
3. One tests the hypothesis by collecting data.

Example of Theory testing

The three steps of theory testing are demonstrated in a study of self-attention theory led by Brian Mullen. This theory focuses on self-regulation processes that occur when an individual projects his attention on himself. Some manifestations of these processes are self-consciousness and embarrassment at work. One of the functions of self-theory is to explain the effects of groups on individuals. The theory states in part that when individuals are in groups they become more self-attentive as the size of the group decreases. This can be explained by the fact that when the size of the becomes smaller individuals can focus their attention more on themselves in relation to the group and therefore tend to follow the standards of the group.

The first step to test the validity of this theory is to formulate a hypothesis, which is a tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more theoretical constructs. "In Mullen's study, the hypothesis is that individuals would be more self-attentive in smaller groups than in larger groups" (Educational Research, an Introduction). The two theoretical constructs stated in the hypothesis are group size and self-attention. They are formulated in the hypothesis in inverse relation  to each other meaning that as group size decreases self-attention increases,

The second step in testing theory is to make deductions of observable consequences of the hypothesis. This process of deducting requires the existence of a real or simulated situation. In this perspective Mullen was able to obtain transcripts of 27 high school discussions of which size varies. Self-attention was operationally defined as the multiple uses of first person singular pronouns (I,me) by students when they talked in the discussion groups. The measure of group size was done by counting the number of students in each discussion group. Mullen was able to define and measure each construct stated in the hypothesis by using the available data.

The third step in testing a theory is to collect empirical data and determine whether they support or reject the hypothesis. Mullen counted the number of students and the number of first singular pronouns stated by the students in each discussion group using all the data available to him. Mullen uses the correlation method to show the relationship between the two sets of data obtained by counting the number of students and the number of pronouns. The result of the statistical analysis was: a higher frequency of first-person singular pronouns was encountered in the smaller groups than in the higher ones.

The hypothesis was supported by available data. Therefore that part of the theory corresponding to the is hypothesis is reinforced. This increases confidence that the theory provides a valid explanation on how people act in social situations.

Several weaknesses arise from the scientific method in spite of its power to test hypothesis.  "One of them is that the researcher may deduce inappropriate observable consequences from the hypothesis, and thus make an inappropriate testing of the hypothesis".

The other weakness is very difficult to overcome. "Any observable result potentially can support multiple, sometimes conflicting theories".  Therefore a researcher can never prove a theory but can only support it.           


           

Doing theory based research

In order to produce an outstanding research study one can formulate a research problem that will test a theory already developed. Some related definitions of terms are then necessary.

What is a theory?

A theory is an explanation of observable events in terms of constructs and laws that specify the relationships between these constructs. In other words to establish a theory you need first observable events. Second you observe these events. Third you explain what you observe using constructs and laws that establish the relationships between these constructs. A theory is first made of concepts of observable events and second of concepts of relationships about the concepts of those observable events.

What is a construct?

A construct is a concept generalized from common elements between observable events and that is used to explain those events. In other words first you observe events. Second you research common elements between the observable elements. third you use the common elements to explain the observed events. Simply said a construct is an explanation of obervable events based on common elements between those events.

What is a law?

A law is a generalization about a causal, sequential or other type of relationships between two or more constructs. First you establish constructs. Second you establish relationships between those constructs. Third you generalize those relationships.

Now that the definition of theory is complete. Let's define two terms that derive from construct: variable and hypothesis,

What is a variable?

A variable is a construct thought of as a characteristic that can vary in quality and quantity.

What is an hypothesis?

First definition: a hypothesis is a speculation about the relationship between two or more variables.

Second definition: a hypothesis is a testable prediction about observable phenomena that is based on a theory's constructs  ant their relationships.

Example of Theory Based Research 

Roger Goddard, Scott Sweetland and Wayne Hoy used theory as a guide in their research of factors influencing student's achievement in urban elementary schools. The primary factor bore upon academic emphasis which is emphasis on academic excellence by schools. The research problem was based on social cognitive theory to predict how the school level of  academic excellence would influence students'achievement.

Social cognitive theory attempts to explain how certain factors influence individual and group perceptions which in turn shape individual and group behavior. An important construct of this theory is agency, which is the tendency of individuals to pursue a course of action in order to achieve some definite goals. An example of agency is the effort made by a school leader in order to achieve academic excellence. According to social theory certain kind of experiences can change an educational leader's perception and consequently affecting his or sense of agency. Other constructs of the social cognitive theory are vicarious learning and self regulation. Let's try to explain these concepts in practice. An educational staff hears about the success of an educational program. This staff can learn vicariously about this program and self regulates in order to apply this program to achieve academic excellence. These perceptual and behavioral changes produce improvement in student's academic performance.

Based on this reasoning from social cognitive theory the researchers hypothesized that teacher's perceptions about school norms and academic excellence will influence their work behavior and consequently student's learning. The researchers stated: "We hypothesize that the academic emphasis of a school is positively associated with differences between schools of the levels of achievement in both reading and mathematics". The hypothesis was tested with a sample of 45 elementary schools. Teachers completed a measure of academic emphasis and the school district provided data on student achievement in mathematic and reading.

As stated in their hypothesis, "Goddard, Sweetland and Hoy found that academic emphasis was a significant predictor of between school differences in student achievement in both mathematics and reading". The findings also supported social cognitive theory:

" The results provide initial support for Bandura's (1986, 1987) suggestion that the concepts and assumptions of social cognitive theory can be extended to organizations and are useful in examining school outcomes. We hasten to add that further testing of social cognitive theory of social cognitive theory in the schools is needed, but the current results are encouraging because our hypothesis was driven by this theory. We hope that the identification of the identification of the theoretical underpinnings of academic emphasis illuminates pathways to future research on school improvement and that school leaders can apply thee ideas to make their schools better places for stuents to learn". (Goddard et al., p.690).

A hypothesis originated from theory guided the design of a research study of which findings improved educator's understanding of factors that improved student learning and reinforced the theory.

This study shows how academic emphasis influence student achievement in urban elementary schools. It supports the social cognitive theory that perceptual and behavioral changes can produce academic achievement. But other changes in perceptions and behavior in the entire school culture have to be done. Effective collaboration between all staff and students in the entire school community is mportant. Opportunities for all staff for professional advancement and their involvement in the well being of the school, mutual understanding and respect between all members of the school, the absence of discrimination, racism and exclusion are also factors worth to be considered. 

It is important to note that the researchers stated that their findings supported social cognitive theory but not proved it. Even if a number of studies produce evidence supporting a theory and no disconforming evidence is present, a theory is never proved. The researchers generally agree with the argument of the philosopher of science Karl Kopper that that the possibility of disconforming evidence in the future always exists. On the other hand, one study that provides disconforming evidence calls for revision or rejection of the theory.

The cognitive dissonance dissonance experimentation stated above was a quantitative research study testing a previously developed theory. In other words a theory was developed and then a study was designed to test it. This procedure doesn't happen in qualitative research study. Many qualitative studies are designed to discover theory. This approach is called grounded theory because the first step consists in collecting data and then the researcher searches for theoretical constructs, themes and patterns "grounded" in the theory.

Yves Simon, Educator

Reference: Educational Research, Joyce P.Gall.